Cities and towns across the country are increasing their efforts to replace lead and other aging water pipes with safer alternatives. That’s thanks in part to $15 billion in funding from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Drinking Water State Revolving Fund.

The question of which materials should be used to replace those old pipes has become a point of contention. Advocates of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) recommend it because of its durability, non-corrosive properties and affordable cost. As many as 65% of contractors preferred PVC for these infrastructure projects in a 2021 survey.

But a growing number of scientific studies suggest PVC and other forms of plastic piping can leach harmful chemicals and accumulate heavy metals like lead, making them less desirable than copper, steel and iron, especially for such a widespread infrastructure overhaul.

Here’s what to know about the safety of PVC pipe within your home, city infrastructure and beyond.

What Are the Dangers of PVC Pipe?

PVC pipe complies with NSF 61, which sets minimum health standards for the components of drinking water systems. Specifically, it limits the amount of impurities and chemical contaminants these components give off. This is also true for CPVC, a slightly different product used for hot- and cold-water distribution systems.

“PVC pipe safely delivers clean drinking water to communities throughout the U.S. and the world,” says Gil Connolly, press secretary for the Vinyl Institute, a trade group representing the vinyl manufacturing industry.

But health and environmental advocacy groups are concerned, pointing to emerging scientific evidence that PVC may not be as safe as previously thought.

Some have criticized the EPA for not giving better guidance to communities trying to determine the best piping materials to use. They say the EPA’s drinking water standards for synthetic chemicals are behind the times, as illustrated by the growing concern of unregulated forever chemicals and other contaminants in our water.

“PVC is a fundamentally hazardous plastic,” says Mike Schade, program director at the environmental health research and advocacy organization Toxic-Free Future. “From production to use to disposal, PVC uses or releases dangerous chemicals such as vinyl chloride that are harmful to communities, workers and consumers.”

In April 2023, Beyond Plastics at Bennington College issued a 56-page report detailing scientific evidence behind these concerns. It urged municipalities and homeowners to consider alternatives to PVC. Their concerns include the following.

Negative health effects of PVC

Vinyl chloride in PVC is a known human carcinogen. Various studies have shown PVC and CPVC pipes, along with the chemicals in pipe fitting adhesives, can release dozens of toxic chemicals into drinking water, including halogenated compounds, organotins and alkyl phenols.

Many of these have not been studied for potential health hazards, but some have. Collectively, those are known to cause a number of health problems, including liver and kidney damage, cancer, developmental, reproductive and immune issues and endocrine disruption.

Health effects of PVC in communities

The most serious health impacts of PVC fall on those who live near or work at PVC manufacturing sites. Those communities are particularly at risk from contaminated air and water due to hazardous chemicals involved in its production, especially vinyl chloride.

Because manufacturing plants are disproportionately near low-income and communities of color, this also creates environmental justice and racial equity problems.

Many communities around the country are also exposed to dioxins released from incinerating PVC, which is routinely collected with household garbage.

“When incinerated, PVC can release dioxins, some of the most toxic chemicals on the planet,” says Schade. “Dioxins are so toxic they’ve been targeted for global elimination by the United Nations.”

Environmental impacts of PVC

PVC is a form of plastic. As such, it delivers the same harm to wildlife and ecosystems as other plastics, including microplastics that release phthalates into streams and oceans and greenhouse gas emissions.

But PVC’s chemicals, like vinyl chloride, are particularly toxic. Greenpeace considers PVC the most environmentally damaging plastic, based on its lifecycle from production through use and disposal.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services found vinyl chloride leaches into groundwater from spills, landfills and other industrial sources. One recent example is the 2023 train derailment in East Palestine, Ohio. Large amounts of vinyl chloride spilled from overturned tanker cars. Once in the environment, vinyl chloride is a persistent organic pollutant.

PVC Pipe Alternatives

According to the Environmental Working Group (EWG) and The Health Building Network, copper, with lead-free joint materials, offers the healthiest alternative to PVC pipes. But copper is more expensive, with arguably a higher carbon footprint (unless it’s been recycled).

If you do go with copper and your water has a pH of less than 7, you’ll need a system that balances your water’s acidity. Also, confirm all joint materials, faucets and fixtures are actually lead-free. Some made before 2014 could make that claim even though they have 8% or higher amounts of lead in them.

The second-best PVC alternative is polypropylene. Pipes made from this are less expensive than copper and less likely to leak chemicals than other forms of plastic piping, according to the EWG.

What Can You Do About PVC Pipe in Your Home?

Your home probably doesn’t contain PVC water transfer pipes; just drain, waste and ventilation. But if your city uses PVC water pipes, an in-home activated carbon water filter should remove most of the vinyl chloride. If you’re concerned about PVC in your community’s water projects, tell your local municipality.